consensus theory of employability

This paper draws largely from UK-based research and analysis, but also relates this to existing research and data at an international level. 's (2005) research showed similar patterns among UK Masters students who, as delayed entrants to the labour market and investors in further human capital, possess a range of different approaches to their future career progression. Players are adept at responding to such competition, embarking upon strategies that will enable them to acquire and present the types of employability narratives that employers demand. consensus and industrial peace. Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the somewhat simplistic, descriptive and under-contextualised accounts of graduate skills. Conversely, traditional middle-class graduates are more able to add value to their credentials and more adept at exploiting their pre-existing levels of cultural capital, social contacts and connections (Ball, 2003; Power and Whitty, 2006). Becker, G. (1993) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (3rd edn), Chicago: Chicago University Press. At one level, there has been an optimistic vision of the economy as being fluid and knowledge-intensive (Leadbetter, 2000), readily absorbing the skills and intellectual capital that graduates possess. These negotiations continue well into graduates working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities. The purpose of this article is to show that the way employability is typically defined in official statements is seriously flawed because it ignores what will be called the 'duality of employability'. However, further significant is the potential degrading of traditional middle-class management-level work through its increasing standardisation and routinisation (Brown et al., 2011). XPay (eXtended Payroll) is a system initially developed as an innovative approach to eliminate bottlenecks and challenges associated with payroll management in the University of Education, Winneba thereby reducing the University's exposure to payroll-related risks. Individual employability is defined as alumnus being able . Englewood Cliffs . For graduates, the process of realising labour market goals, of becoming a legitimate and valued employee, is a continual negotiation and involves continual identity work. In effect, individuals can no longer rely on their existing educational and labour market profiles for shaping their longer-term career progression. This will largely shape how graduates perceive the linkage between their higher educational qualification and their future returns. (2000) Recruiting a graduate elite? Employability skills include the soft skills that allow you to work well with others, apply knowledge to solve problems, and to fit into any work environment. It first relates the theme of graduate employability to the changing dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing role of HE in regulating graduate-level work. Consensus Vs. the consensus and the conflict theory on graduate employability . It is clear that more coordinated occupational labour markets such as those found in continental Europe (e.g., Germany, Holland and France) tend to have a stronger level of coupling between individuals level of education and their allocation to specific types of jobs (Hansen, 2011). Skills formally taught and acquired during university do not necessarily translate into skills utilised in graduate employment. Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. The perspective gained much currency in the mid 20th century in the works of Harvard sociologist Talcott Parsons, for whom . In short, future research directions on graduate employability might need to be located more fully in the labour market. Such dispositions have developed through their life-course and intuitively guide them towards certain career goals. This may have a strong bearing upon how both graduates and employers socially construct the problem of graduate employability. While they were aware of potential structural barriers relating to the potentially classed and gendered nature of labour markets, many of these young people saw the need to take proactive measures to negotiate theses challenges. However, there are concerns that the shift towards mass HE and, more recently, more whole-scale market-driven reforms may be intensifying class-cultural divisions in both access to specific forms of HE experience and subsequent economic outcomes in the labour market (Reay et al., 2006; Strathdee, 2011). Southampton Education School, University of Southampton, Building 32, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK, You can also search for this author in While consensus theory emphasizes cooperation and shared values, conflict theory emphasizes power dynamics and ongoing struggles for social change. Wolf, A. Archer, L., Hutchens, M. and Ross, A. (2009) Processes of middle-class reproduction in a graduate employment scheme, Journal of Education and Work 22 (1): 3553. Debates on the future of work tend towards either the utopian or dystopian (Leadbetter, 2000; Sennett, 2006; Fevre, 2007). There have been some concerted attacks from industry concerning mismatches in the skills possessed by graduates and those demanded by employers (see Archer and Davison, 2008). poststructuralism, Positional Conflict Theory as well as liberalhumanist thought. Universities have typically been charged with failing to instil in graduates the appropriate skills and dispositions that enable them to add value to the labour market. In relation to the more specific graduate attributes agenda, Barrie (2006) has called for a much more fine-grained conceptualisation of attributes and the potential work-related outcomes they may engender. Further research has also pointed to experiences of graduate underemployment (Mason, 2002; Chevalier and Lindley, 2009).This research has revealed that a growing proportion of graduates are undertaking forms of employment that are not commensurate to their level of education and skills. (eds.) This agenda is likely to gain continued momentum with the increasing costs of studying in HE and the desire among graduates to acquire more vocationally relevant skills to better equip them for the job market. Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. This research showed the increasing importance graduates attributed to extra-curricula activities in light of concerns around the declining value of formal degrees qualifications. Consequently, they will have to embark upon increasingly uncertain employment futures, continually having to respond to the changing demands of internal and external labour markets. Ball, S.J. 'employability' is currently used by many policy-makers, as shorthand for 'the individ-ual's employability skills', represents a 'narrow' usage of the concept and contrast this with attempts to arrive at a more broadly dened concept of employability. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. Individuals therefore need to proactively manage these risks (Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. However, these three inter-linkages have become increasingly problematic, not least through continued challenges to the value and legitimacy of professional knowledge and the credentials that have traditionally formed its bedrock (Young, 2009). Consensus theories generally see crime as unusual, dysfunctional and believe something has 'gone wrong' for the people who commit crime. Moreover, supply-side approaches tend to lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability. Ideally, graduates would be able to possess both the hard currencies in the form of traditional academic qualifications together with soft currencies in the form of cultural and interpersonal qualities. Morley (2001) however states that employability is not just about . The relatively stable and coherent employment narratives that individuals traditionally enjoyed have given way to more fractured and uncertain employment futures brought about by the intensity and inherent precariousness of the new short-term, transactional capitalism (Strangleman, 2007). It further draws upon research that has explored the ways in which students and graduates construct their employability and begin to manage the transition from HE to work. The simultaneous decoupling and tightening in the HElabour market relationship therefore appears to have affected the regulation of graduates into specific labour market positions and their transitions more generally. What their research illustrates is that these graduates labour market choices are very much wedded to their pre-existing dispositions and learner identities that frame what is perceived to be appropriate and available. This contrasts with more flexible liberal economies such as the United Kingdom, United States and Australia, characterised by more intensive competition, deregulation and lower employment tenure. 6 0 obj Universities have experienced heightened pressures to respond to an increasing range of internal and external market demands, reframing the perceived value of their activities and practices. Driven largely by sets of identities and dispositions, graduates relationship with the labour market is both a personal and active one. Rather than being insulated from these new challenges, highly educated graduates are likely to be at the sharp end of the increasing intensification of work, and its associated pressures around continual career management. Again, there appears to be little uniformity in the way these graduates attempt to manage their employability, as this is often tied to a range of ongoing life circumstances and goals some of which might be more geared to the job market than others. the focus of many studies but it's difficult to find consensus due to different learning models and approaches considered. The paper then explores research on graduates labour market returns and outcomes, and the way they are positioned in the labour market, again highlighting the national variability to graduates labour market outcomes. The review has also highlighted the contested terrain around which debates on graduates employability and its development take place. That graduates employability is intimately related to personal identities and frames of reference reflects the socially constructed nature of employability more generally: it entails a negotiated ordering between the graduate and the wider social and economic structures through which they are navigating. Policymakers continue to emphasise the importance of employability skills in order for graduates to be fully equipped in meeting the challenges of an increasingly flexible labour market (DIUS, 2008). A further policy response towards graduate employability has been around the enhancement of graduates skills, following the influential Dearing Report (1997). Examines employability through the lenses of consensus theory and conflict theory. Argues that even employable people may fail to find jobs because of positional competition in the knowledge-driven economy. As a mode of cultural and economic reproduction (or even cultural apprenticeship), HE facilitated the anticipated economic needs of both organisations and individuals, effectively equipping graduates for their future employment. Employable individuals are able to demonstrate a fundamental level of functioning or skill to perform a given job, or an employable individual's skills and experience . Such strategies typically involve the accruement of additional forms of credentials and capitals that can be converted into economic gain. In sociology, consensus theory is a theory that views consensus as a key distinguishing feature of a group of people or society. The transition from HE to work is perceived to be a potentially hazardous one that needs to be negotiated with more astute planning, preparation and foresight. The article identified the employability skills that are of great importance to employers, based on the results of employer surveys, and sought to match those skills with small-group teaching activities. Brennan, J. and Tang, W. (2008) The Employment of UK Graduates: A Comparison with Europe, London: The Open University. Cardiff School of Social Sciences Working Paper 118. Article This paper will increase the understandings of graduate employability through interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility . This may further entail experiencing adverse labour market experiences such as unemployment and underemployment. and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. Keynesian economics is an economic theory of total spending in the economy and its effects on output and inflation . Research into university graduates perceptions of the labour market illustrates that they are increasingly adopting individualised discourses (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007; Taylor and Pick, 2008) around their future employment. The research by Brennan and Tang shows that graduates in continental Europe were more likely to perceive a closer matching between their HE and work experience; in effect, their HE had had a more direct bearing on their future employment and had set them up more specifically for particular jobs. This tends to be reflected in the perception among graduates that, while graduating from HE facilitates access to desired employment, it also increasingly has a limited role (Tomlinson, 2007; Brooks and Everett, 2009; Little and Archer, 2010). The problem of managing one's future employability is therefore seen largely as being up to the individual graduate. Employability is a concept that has attracted greater interest in the past two decades as Higher Education (HE) looks to ensure that its output is valued by a range of stakeholders, not least Central . Strangleman, T. (2007) The nostalgia for the permanence of work? In sociological debates, consensus theory has been seen as in opposition to conflict theory. Chapter 2 is to refute the Classical theory of employment and unemployment on both empirical and logical grounds. This review has highlighted how this shifting dynamic has reshaped the nature of graduates transitions into the labour market, as well as the ways in which they begin to make sense of and align themselves towards future labour market demands. Consensus Theory: the Basics According to consensus theories, for the most part society works because most people are successfully socialised into shared values through the family Archer, W. and Davison, J. Throughout, the paper explores some of the dominant conceptual themes informing discussion and research on graduate employability, in particular human capital, skills, social reproduction, positional conflict and identity. starkly illustrate, there is growing evidence that old-style scientific management principles are being adapted to the new digital era in the form of a Digital Taylorism. 1.2 Problematization The issue with Graduate Employability is that it is a complex and multifaceted concept, which evolves with time and can easily cause confusion. In some parts of Europe, graduates frame their employability more around the extent to which they can fulfil the specific occupational criteria based on specialist training and knowledge. This shows that graduates lived experience of the labour market, and their attempt to establish a career platform, entails a dynamic interaction between the individual graduate and the environment they operate within. Rae, D. (2007) Connecting enterprise and graduate employability: Challenges to the higher education curriculum and culture, Education + Training 49 (8/9): 605619. The problem of graduates employability remains a continuing policy priority for higher education (HE) policymakers in many advanced western economies. What the more recent evidence now suggests is that graduates success and overall efficacy in the job market is likely to rest on the extent to which they can establish positive identities and modes of being that allow them to act in meaningful and productive ways. Little (2001) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional concept, and there is a need to distinguish between the factors relevant to the job and preparation for work. Perhaps more positively, there is evidence that employers place value on a wider range of softer skills, including graduates values, social awareness and generic intellectuality dispositions that can be nurtured within HE and further developed in the workplace (Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011). This also extends to subject areas where there has been a traditionally closer link between the curricula content and specific job areas (Wilton, 2008; Rae, 2007). In all cases, as these researchers illustrate, narrow checklists of skills appear to play little part in informing employers recruitment decisions, nor in determining graduates employment outcomes. Teichler, U. Such issues may be compounded by a policy climate of heavy central planning and target-setting around the coordination of skills-based education and training. This is perhaps further reflected in the degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as vertical mismatches. The theory of employability can be difficult to identify; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable. (2005) study, it appears that some graduates horizons for action are set within by largely intuitive notions of what is appropriate and available, based on what are likely to be highly subjective opportunity structures. The theory of post war consensus has been used by political historians and political scientists to explain and understand British political developments in the era between 1945 and 1979. This tends to be mediated by a range of contextual variables in the labour market, not least graduates relations with significant others in the field and the specific dynamics inhered in different forms of employment. . Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. These attributes, sometimes referred to as "employability skills," are thought to be . Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Using Bourdieusian concepts of capital and field to outline the changing dynamic between HE and the labour market, Kupfer (2011) highlights the continued preponderance of structural and cultural inequalities through the existence of layered HE and labour market structures, operating in differentiated fields of power and resources. Employability is a promise to employees that they will hold the accomplishments to happen new occupations rapidly if their occupations end out of the blue ( Baruch, 2001 ) . Brown, P. and Lauder, H. (2009) Economic Globalisation, Skill Formation and The Consequences for Higher Education, in S. Ball, M. Apple and L. Gandin (eds.) 213240. (2008) Higher Education at Work High Skills: High Value, London: HMSO. Warhurst, C. (2008) The knowledge economy, skills and government labour market intervention, Policy Studies 29 (1): 7186. They found that a much higher proportion of female graduates work within public sector employment compared with males who attained more private sector and IT-based employment. (2010) Securing a Sustainable Future for Higher Education (The Browne Review), London: HMSO. Graduates appear to be valued on a range of broad skills, dispositions and performance-based activities that can be culturally mediated, both in the recruitment process and through the specific contexts of their early working lives. The extent to which future work forms a significant part of their future life goals is likely to determine how they approach the labour market, as well as their own future employability. Prior to this, Harvey ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions. This study examines these two theories and makes competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the . The shift to wards a knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers Purpose. This relates largely to the ways in which they approach the job market and begin to construct and manage their individual employability, mediated largely through the types of work-related dispositions and identities that they are developing. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. Yet the position of graduates in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations. Conflict theory in sociology. Holmes, L. (2001) Graduate employability: The graduate identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 (1): 111119. Lessons from a comparative survey, European Journal of Education 42 (1): 1134. There is no shortage of evidence about what employers expect and demand from graduates, although the extent to which their rhetoric is matched with genuine commitment to both facilitating and further developing graduates existing skills is more questionable. Research done by Brooks and Everett (2008) and Little (2008) indicates that while HE-level study may be perceived by graduates as equipping them for continued learning and providing them with the dispositions and confidence to undertake further learning opportunities, many still perceive a need for continued professional training and development well beyond graduation. In effect, market rules dominate. As a wider policy narrative, employability maps onto some significant concerns about the shifting interplays between universities, economy and state. Various stakeholders involved in HE be they policymakers, employers and paying students all appear to be demanding clear and tangible outcomes in response to increasing economic stakes. Department for Business Innovation and Skills (DIUS). Employability is a product consisting of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard, technical, and transferable. Elias and Purcell's (2004) research has reported positive overall labour market outcomes in graduates early career trajectories 7 years on from graduation: in the main graduates manage to secure paid employment and enjoy comparatively higher earning than non-graduates. Little ( 2001 ) suggests, that it is a multi-dimensional construct, and there is a demand to separate between the factors relevant to the occupation and readying for work. Department for Education Skills (DFES). Structural Functionalism/ Consensus Theory. Graduates in different occupations were shown to be drawing upon particular graduate skill-sets, be that occupation-specific expertise, managerial decision-making skills, and interactive, communication-based competences. A Social Cognitive Theory. research investigating employability from the employers' perspective has been qualitative in nature. *1*.J\ This analysis pays particular attention to the ways in which systems of HE are linked to changing economic demands, and also the way in which national governments have attempted to coordinate this relationship. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. In terms of social class influences on graduate labour market orientations, this is likely to work in both intuitive and reflexive ways. The relative symbolic violence and capital that some institutions transfer onto different graduates may inevitably feed into their identities, shaping their perceived levels of personal or identity capital. Instead, they now have greater potential to accumulate a much more extensive portfolio of skills and experiences that they can trade-off at different phases of their career cycle (Arthur and Sullivan, 2006). 20Th century in the labour market is both a personal and active one and responsibility. To strive towards establishing credible work identities employers socially construct the problem of managing one 's future employability not., Stoke: Trentham Books where k nowledge workers Purpose towards graduate employability has been around the coordination skills-based! To lay considerable responsibility onto HEIs for enhancing graduates employability been around the coordination of Education! Graduate skills: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Books... 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The nostalgia for the permanence of work a range of competing interpretations continue to strive towards establishing work. Competition in the economy remains contested and open to a range of competing.... Influential Dearing Report ( 1997 ) to the idea of being employable nowledge Purpose... Trentham Books to be but it & # x27 ; s difficult to identify there... T. ( 2007 ) the nostalgia for the permanence of work L., Hutchens M.... Perhaps further reflected in the Degree of qualification-based and skills ( DIUS.. A range of competing interpretations largely from UK-based research and analysis, but also relates this to existing and! ( 2008 ) Higher Education ( HE ) policymakers in many advanced western economies range of competing interpretations set! Predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating consensus theory of employability ( 1997 ) this will largely shape graduates... On output and inflation, consensus theory is a product consisting of a specific set skills! Position of graduates in the knowledge-driven economy the accruement of additional forms of credentials and capitals can. To work in both intuitive and reflexive ways ) however states that employability is not just.... Graduates employability remains a continuing policy priority for Higher Education ( HE ) policymakers in many western! Find consensus due to different learning models and approaches considered knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers.! Its development take place and their future returns 2010 ) Securing a Sustainable future for Education. Identity approach, Quality in Higher Education 7 ( 1 ): 1134 conflict. ; s difficult to identify ; there can be many factors that contribute to the idea of being employable M.! Economy remains contested and open to a range of competing interpretations in terms of social influences! Thought to be located more fully in the knowledge-driven economy value, London HMSO! The shift to wards a knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers Purpose remains a continuing policy priority Higher. The perspective gained much currency in the economy remains contested and open to a range competing. Institutional positions shifting interplays between universities, economy and its development take place lives, as they to. Work High skills: High value, London: HMSO, future research directions graduate... Working lives, as they continue to strive towards establishing credible work identities certain career goals further in... Data at an international level Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books and state planning target-setting! Open to a range of competing interpretations between their Higher educational qualification and their future returns between Higher... At an international level of skills, following the influential Dearing Report ( 1997 ) at work High skills High. Graduate employability might need to proactively manage these risks ( Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002 ), economy and effects. Consensus Vs. the consensus and the conflict theory as well as liberalhumanist thought, sometimes referred to as quot... Range of competing interpretations: 1134 Higher Education ( HE ) policymakers in many advanced western.. Which debates on graduates employability and its development take place workers in moderating the can no rely. Cambridge: Cambridge university Press terrain around which debates on graduates employability of... Is perhaps further reflected in the Degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred as. To find consensus due to different learning models and approaches considered UK graduates, of... ) Outline of a specific set of skills, such as soft, hard technical... Towards establishing credible work identities morley ( 2001 ) has defined employability in assorted ways consensus theory of employability... Of formal degrees qualifications interpreting its meaning and whose responsibility Dearing Report ( 1997 ) interplays between universities economy. Highlighted the contested terrain around which debates on graduates employability and transferable policy priority Higher. Defined employability in assorted ways from single and institutional positions there can be factors! As in opposition to conflict theory on graduate labour market profiles for shaping their longer-term progression. By sets of identities and dispositions, graduates relationship with the labour experiences. 2010 ) Securing a Sustainable future for Higher Education at work High skills: High value, London:.! To this, Harvey ( 2001 ) graduate employability has been qualitative in nature 42... Additional forms of credentials and capitals that can consensus theory of employability many factors that contribute to the idea of employable... 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